Short Sprints • shorts

This package creates short sprint (<6sec) profiles using the split times, or the radar gun data. Mono-exponential equation is used to estimate maximal sprinting speed (MSS), relative acceleration (TAU), and other parameters. These parameters can be used to predict kinematic and kinetics variables and to compare individuals.

Installation

# Install from CRAN
install.packages("shorts")

# Or the development version from GitHub
# install.packages("devtools")
devtools::install_github("mladenjovanovic/shorts")

Examples

shorts comes with two sample data sets: split_times and radar_gun_data with N=5 athletes. Let’s load them both:

require(shorts)
require(tidyverse)
require(knitr)

data("split_times", "radar_gun_data")

Profiling using split times

To model sprint performance using split times, distance will be used as predictor and time as target. Since split_times contains data for multiple athletes, let’s extract only one athlete and model it using shorts::model_using_splits() function.

kimberley_data <- filter(split_times, athlete == "Kimberley")

kable(kimberley_data)

athlete	bodyweight	distance	time
Kimberley	55	5	1.158
Kimberley	55	10	1.893
Kimberley	55	15	2.541
Kimberley	55	20	3.149
Kimberley	55	30	4.313
Kimberley	55	40	5.444

shorts::model_using_splits() returns an object with parameters, model_fit, model returned from stats::nls() function and data used to estimate parameters. Parameters estimated using mono-exponential equation are maximal sprinting speed (MSS), and relative acceleration (TAU). Additional parameters computed from MSS and TAU are maximal acceleration (MAC) and maximal relative power (PMAX) (which is calculated as MAC*MSS/4).

kimberley_profile <- shorts::model_using_splits(
  distance = kimberley_data$distance,
  time = kimberley_data$time)  

kimberley_profile
#> Estimated model parameters
#> --------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.591               0.811              10.589              22.743 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000 
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>    0.0340    0.9997   -0.0270    0.0529    0.0529    0.0278    0.0233    1.1926

summary(kimberley_profile)
#> 
#> Formula: corrected_time ~ TAU * I(LambertW::W(-exp(1)^(-distance/(MSS * 
#>     TAU) - 1))) + distance/MSS + TAU
#> 
#> Parameters:
#>     Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
#> MSS   8.5911     0.1225    70.1  2.5e-07 ***
#> TAU   0.8113     0.0458    17.7  6.0e-05 ***
#> ---
#> Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
#> 
#> Residual standard error: 0.034 on 4 degrees of freedom
#> 
#> Number of iterations to convergence: 4 
#> Achieved convergence tolerance: 4.06e-06

coef(kimberley_profile)
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.591               0.811              10.589              22.743 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000

To return the predicted outcome (in this case time variable), use predict() function:

predict(kimberley_profile)
#> [1] 1.21 1.90 2.52 3.12 4.30 5.47

To create a simple plot, use S3 plot() method:

plot(kimberley_profile) +
  theme_bw()

If you are interested in calculating average split velocity, use shorts::format_splits()

kable(shorts::format_splits(
  distance = kimberley_data$distance,
  time = kimberley_data$time))

split	split_distance_start	split_distance_stop	split_distance	split_time_start	split_time_stop	split_time	split_mean_velocity
1	0	5	5	0	1.158	1.158	4.317789….
2	5	10	5	1.158	1.893	0.735	6.802721….
3	10	15	5	1.893	2.541	0.648	7.716049….
4	15	20	5	2.541	3.149	0.608	8.223684….
5	20	30	10	3.149	4.313	1.164	8.591065….
6	30	40	10	4.313	5.444	1.131	8.841732….

Let’s plot observed vs fitted split times. For this we can use data returned from shorts::model_using_splits() since it contains pred_time column.

ggplot(kimberley_profile$data, aes(x = distance)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_point(aes(y = time)) +
  geom_line(aes(y = pred_time)) +
  xlab("Distance (m)") +
  ylab("Time (s)")

To plot predicted velocity, acceleration, air resistance, force, and power over distance, use shorts:predict_XXX(). Please note that to calculate force, air resistance, and power, we need Kimberley’s bodymass and height (as well as other characteristics such as air pressure, temperature and wind - see get_air_resistance() function).

kimberley_bodymass <- 60 # in kilograms
kimberley_bodyheight <- 1.7 # in meters

kimberley_pred <- tibble(
  distance = seq(0, 40, length.out = 1000),
  
  # Velocity
  pred_velocity = shorts::predict_velocity_at_distance(
    distance,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU),
  
  # Acceleration
  pred_acceleration = shorts::predict_acceleration_at_distance(
    distance,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU),
  
  # Air resistance
  pred_air_resistance = shorts::predict_air_resistance_at_distance(
    distance,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
    bodymass = kimberley_bodymass,
    bodyheight = kimberley_bodyheight),
  
  # Force
  pred_force = shorts::predict_force_at_distance(
    distance,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
    bodymass = kimberley_bodymass,
    bodyheight = kimberley_bodyheight),
  
  # Power
  pred_power = shorts::predict_power_at_distance(
    distance,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
    kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
    bodymass = kimberley_bodymass,
    bodyheight = kimberley_bodyheight),
)

# Convert to long
kimberley_pred <- gather(kimberley_pred, "metric", "value", -distance)

ggplot(kimberley_pred, aes(x = distance, y = value)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_line() +
  facet_wrap(~metric, scales = "free_y") + 
  xlab("Distance (m)") +
  ylab(NULL)

To do prediction simpler, use shorts::predict_kinematics() function. This will provide kinetics and kinematics for 0-6s sprint using 100Hz.

predicted_kinematics <- predict_kinematics(
  kimberley_profile,
  bodymass = kimberley_bodymass,
  bodyheight = kimberley_bodyheight)

kable(head(predicted_kinematics))

time	distance	velocity	acceleration	bodymass	net_horizontal_force	air_resistance	horizontal_force	horizontal_force_relative	vertical_force	resultant_force	resultant_force_relative	power	relative_power	RF	force_angle
0.00	0.000	0.000	10.59	60	635	0.000	635	10.59	589	866	14.4	0	0.00	0.734	42.8
0.01	0.001	0.105	10.46	60	628	0.003	628	10.46	589	860	14.3	66	1.10	0.729	43.2
0.02	0.002	0.209	10.33	60	620	0.011	620	10.33	589	855	14.2	130	2.16	0.725	43.5
0.03	0.005	0.312	10.21	60	612	0.023	612	10.21	589	849	14.2	191	3.18	0.721	43.9
0.04	0.008	0.413	10.08	60	605	0.041	605	10.08	589	844	14.1	250	4.17	0.717	44.2
0.05	0.013	0.513	9.96	60	597	0.063	597	9.96	589	839	14.0	307	5.11	0.712	44.6

To get model residuals, use residuals() function:

residuals(kimberley_profile)
#> [1]  0.05293  0.00402 -0.01997 -0.02699 -0.01376  0.02232

Package shorts comes with find_XXX() family of functions that allow finding peak power and it’s location, as well as critical distance over which velocity, acceleration, or power drops below certain threshold:

# Peak power and location
shorts::find_max_power_distance(
  kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
  kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU
)
#> $max_power
#> [1] 1728
#> 
#> $distance
#> [1] 1.42

# Distance over which power is over 50%
shorts::find_power_critical_distance(
  MSS = kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
  TAU = kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
  percent = 0.5
)
#> $lower
#> [1] 0.0856
#> 
#> $upper
#> [1] 8.36

# Distance over which acceleration is under 50%
shorts::find_acceleration_critical_distance(
  MSS = kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
  TAU = kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
  percent = 0.5
)
#> [1] 1.35

# Distance over which velocity is over 95%
shorts::find_velocity_critical_distance(
  MSS = kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
  TAU = kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
  percent = 0.95
)
#> [1] 14.3

Mixed-effect models

Each individual can be modeled separately, or we can perform non-linear mixed model using nlme() function from nlme package (Pinheiro et al., 2019). This is done using shorts::mixed_model_using_splits():

mixed_model <- shorts::mixed_model_using_splits(
  data = split_times,
  distance = "distance",
  time = "time",
  athlete = "athlete"
)

mixed_model
#> Estimated fixed model parameters
#> --------------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.065               0.655              12.309              24.818 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000 
#> 
#> Estimated random model parameters
#> ----------------------------------
#>     athlete  MSS   TAU  MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1     James 9.69 0.847 11.4 27.7               0                   0
#> 2       Jim 7.83 0.505 15.5 30.4               0                   0
#> 3      John 7.78 0.727 10.7 20.8               0                   0
#> 4 Kimberley 8.57 0.802 10.7 22.9               0                   0
#> 5  Samantha 6.45 0.395 16.3 26.4               0                   0
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>    0.0260    0.9998   -0.0293    0.0496    0.0496    0.0214    0.0172    0.9019

summary(mixed_model)
#> Nonlinear mixed-effects model fit by maximum likelihood
#>   Model: corrected_time ~ TAU * I(LambertW::W(-exp(1)^(-distance/(MSS *      TAU) - 1))) + distance/MSS + TAU 
#>   Data: train 
#>     AIC   BIC logLik
#>   -75.1 -66.7   43.5
#> 
#> Random effects:
#>  Formula: list(MSS ~ 1, TAU ~ 1)
#>  Level: athlete
#>  Structure: General positive-definite, Log-Cholesky parametrization
#>          StdDev Corr 
#> MSS      1.066  MSS  
#> TAU      0.178  0.877
#> Residual 0.026       
#> 
#> Fixed effects:  MSS + TAU ~ 1 
#>     Value Std.Error DF t-value p-value
#> MSS  8.06     0.495 24   16.30       0
#> TAU  0.66     0.084 24    7.82       0
#>  Correlation: 
#>     MSS  
#> TAU 0.874
#> 
#> Standardized Within-Group Residuals:
#>    Min     Q1    Med     Q3    Max 
#> -1.909 -0.605  0.154  0.523  1.129 
#> 
#> Number of Observations: 30
#> Number of Groups: 5

coef(mixed_model)
#> $fixed
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.065               0.655              12.309              24.818 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000 
#> 
#> $random
#>     athlete  MSS   TAU  MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1     James 9.69 0.847 11.4 27.7               0                   0
#> 2       Jim 7.83 0.505 15.5 30.4               0                   0
#> 3      John 7.78 0.727 10.7 20.8               0                   0
#> 4 Kimberley 8.57 0.802 10.7 22.9               0                   0
#> 5  Samantha 6.45 0.395 16.3 26.4               0                   0

plot(mixed_model) +
  theme_bw()

kable(mixed_model$parameters$random)

athlete	MSS	TAU	MAC	PMAX
James	9.69	0.847	11.4	27.7
Jim	7.83	0.505	15.5	30.4
John	7.78	0.727	10.7	20.8
Kimberley	8.57	0.802	10.7	22.9
Samantha	6.45	0.395	16.3	26.4

shorts::mixed_model_using_splits() return the similar object, but parameters contain two elements: fixed and random.

Let’s plot predicted velocity over distance for athletes in the split_times data set:

velocity_over_distance <- merge(
    mixed_model$parameters$random,
    data.frame(distance = seq(0, 40, length.out = 1000))
)

velocity_over_distance$pred_velocity <- with(velocity_over_distance,
  shorts::predict_velocity_at_distance(
    distance = distance,
    MSS = MSS,
    TAU = TAU)
)

ggplot(velocity_over_distance, aes(x = distance, y = pred_velocity, color = athlete)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_line() +
  xlab("Distance (m)") +
  ylab("Predicted velocity (m/s)")

To modify random effects, which are by default MSS and TAU (MSS + TAU ~ 1), use the random parameter. For example, we can assume same TAU for all athletes and only use MSS as random effect:

mixed_model <- shorts::mixed_model_using_splits(
  data = split_times,
  distance = "distance",
  time = "time",
  athlete = "athlete",
  random = MSS ~ 1
)

mixed_model
#> Estimated fixed model parameters
#> --------------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               7.937               0.628              12.644              25.087 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000 
#> 
#> Estimated random model parameters
#> ----------------------------------
#>     athlete  MSS   TAU  MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1     James 9.02 0.628 14.4 32.4               0                   0
#> 2       Jim 8.11 0.628 12.9 26.2               0                   0
#> 3      John 7.58 0.628 12.1 22.9               0                   0
#> 4 Kimberley 8.14 0.628 13.0 26.4               0                   0
#> 5  Samantha 6.83 0.628 10.9 18.6               0                   0
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>    0.0764    0.9980   -0.1023    0.1599    0.1599    0.0698    0.0585    2.6856

Profiling using radar gun data

The radar gun data is modeled using measured velocity as target variable and time as predictor. Individual analysis is performed using shorts::model_using_radar() function. Let’s do analysis for Jim:

jim_data <- filter(radar_gun_data, athlete == "Jim")

jim_profile <- shorts::model_using_radar(
  time = jim_data$time,
  velocity = jim_data$velocity
)

jim_profile
#> Estimated model parameters
#> --------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               7.998               0.889               9.000              17.995 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000 
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>    0.0506    0.9992   -0.1510    0.1642    0.1642    0.0505    0.0393       NaN

summary(jim_profile)
#> 
#> Formula: velocity ~ MSS * (1 - exp(1)^(-(corrected_time)/TAU))
#> 
#> Parameters:
#>     Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
#> MSS  7.99793    0.00307    2606   <2e-16 ***
#> TAU  0.88866    0.00156     568   <2e-16 ***
#> ---
#> Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
#> 
#> Residual standard error: 0.0506 on 598 degrees of freedom
#> 
#> Number of iterations to convergence: 3 
#> Achieved convergence tolerance: 9.31e-07

plot(jim_profile) +
  theme_bw()

The object returned from shorts::model_using_radar() is same as object returned from shorts::model_using_splits(). Let’s plot Jim’s measured velocity and predicted velocity:

ggplot(jim_profile$data, aes(x = time)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_line(aes(y = velocity), alpha = 0.5) +
  geom_line(aes(y = pred_velocity), color = "red", alpha = 0.5) +
  xlab("Time (s)") +
  ylab("Velocity (m/s)")

Radar gun data can be modeled individually or using non-linear mixed model implemented in shorts::mixed_model_using_radar():

mixed_model <- shorts::mixed_model_using_radar(
  data = radar_gun_data,
  time = "time",
  velocity = "velocity",
  athlete = "athlete"
)

mixed_model
#> Estimated fixed model parameters
#> --------------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>                8.30                1.01                8.24               17.09 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>                0.00                0.00 
#> 
#> Estimated random model parameters
#> ----------------------------------
#>     athlete   MSS   TAU  MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1     James 10.00 1.111 9.00 22.5               0                   0
#> 2       Jim  8.00 0.889 9.00 18.0               0                   0
#> 3      John  8.00 1.069 7.48 15.0               0                   0
#> 4 Kimberley  9.01 1.286 7.01 15.8               0                   0
#> 5  Samantha  6.50 0.685 9.50 15.4               0                   0
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>    0.0516    0.9994   -0.2191    0.1983    0.2191    0.0516    0.0395       NaN

summary(mixed_model)
#> Nonlinear mixed-effects model fit by maximum likelihood
#>   Model: velocity ~ MSS * (1 - exp(1)^(-(corrected_time)/TAU)) 
#>   Data: train 
#>     AIC   BIC logLik
#>   -9150 -9114   4581
#> 
#> Random effects:
#>  Formula: list(MSS ~ 1, TAU ~ 1)
#>  Level: athlete
#>  Structure: General positive-definite, Log-Cholesky parametrization
#>          StdDev Corr 
#> MSS      1.1654 MSS  
#> TAU      0.2050 0.811
#> Residual 0.0516      
#> 
#> Fixed effects:  MSS + TAU ~ 1 
#>     Value Std.Error   DF t-value p-value
#> MSS  8.30     0.521 2994    15.9       0
#> TAU  1.01     0.092 2994    11.0       0
#>  Correlation: 
#>     MSS  
#> TAU 0.811
#> 
#> Standardized Within-Group Residuals:
#>       Min        Q1       Med        Q3       Max 
#> -3.840000 -0.593297 -0.000256  0.611162  4.242735 
#> 
#> Number of Observations: 3000
#> Number of Groups: 5

plot(mixed_model) +
  theme_bw()

kable(mixed_model$parameters$random)

athlete	MSS	TAU	MAC	PMAX
James	10.00	1.111	9.00	22.5
Jim	8.00	0.889	9.00	18.0
John	8.00	1.069	7.48	15.0
Kimberley	9.01	1.286	7.00	15.8
Samantha	6.50	0.685	9.50	15.4

Let’s plot predicted acceleration over time (0-6sec) for athletes in the radar_gun_data data set:

model_predictions <- shorts::predict_kinematics(mixed_model)

ggplot(model_predictions, aes(x = time, y = acceleration, color = athlete)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_line() +
  xlab("Time (s)") +
  ylab("Predicted acceleration (m/s^2)")

Force-Velocity Profiling

To estimate Force-Velocity profile using approach by Samozino et al. (2016), use shorts::get_FV_profile():

kimberley_fv <- shorts::get_FV_profile(
  MSS = kimberley_profile$parameters$MSS,
  TAU = kimberley_profile$parameters$TAU,
  # These are needed to estimate air resistance
  bodymass = kimberley_bodymass,
  bodyheight = kimberley_bodyheight
)

kimberley_fv
#> Estimated Force-Velocity Profile
#> --------------------------
#>      bodymass            F0        F0_rel            V0          Pmax 
#>      6.00e+01      6.30e+02      1.05e+01      8.83e+00      1.39e+03 
#> Pmax_relative      FV_slope  RFmax_cutoff         RFmax           Drf 
#>      2.32e+01     -1.19e+00      3.00e-01      5.99e-01     -1.04e-01 
#>        RSE_FV       RSE_Drf 
#>      9.95e-01      9.46e-03

plot(kimberley_fv) +
  theme_bw()

Using corrections

You have probably noticed that estimated MSS and TAU were a bit too high for splits data. Biased estimates are due to differences in starting positions and timing triggering methods for certain measurement approaches (e.g. starting behind first timing gate, or allowing for body rocking). This topic is further explained in sprint-corrections vignette that can be accessed by typing:

vignette("sprint-corrections")

Here I will provide quick summary. Often, this bias in estimates is dealt with by using heuristic rule of thumb of adding time_correction to split times (e.g. from 0.3-0.5sec; see more in Haugen et al., 2012). This functionality is available in all covered shorts functions:

mixed_model_corrected <- shorts::mixed_model_using_splits(
  data = split_times,
  distance = "distance",
  time = "time",
  athlete = "athlete", 
  time_correction = 0.3
)

mixed_model_corrected
#> Estimated fixed model parameters
#> --------------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>                8.47                1.15                7.34               15.55 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>                0.30                0.00 
#> 
#> Estimated random model parameters
#> ----------------------------------
#>     athlete   MSS   TAU  MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1     James 10.55 1.495 7.05 18.6             0.3                   0
#> 2       Jim  8.05 0.922 8.73 17.6             0.3                   0
#> 3      John  8.13 1.230 6.61 13.4             0.3                   0
#> 4 Kimberley  9.11 1.372 6.64 15.1             0.3                   0
#> 5  Samantha  6.53 0.756 8.64 14.1             0.3                   0
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>   0.01520   0.99994  -0.04116   0.02030   0.04116   0.01244   0.00909   0.49682

summary(mixed_model_corrected)
#> Nonlinear mixed-effects model fit by maximum likelihood
#>   Model: corrected_time ~ TAU * I(LambertW::W(-exp(1)^(-distance/(MSS *      TAU) - 1))) + distance/MSS + TAU 
#>   Data: train 
#>     AIC   BIC logLik
#>   -96.9 -88.5   54.5
#> 
#> Random effects:
#>  Formula: list(MSS ~ 1, TAU ~ 1)
#>  Level: athlete
#>  Structure: General positive-definite, Log-Cholesky parametrization
#>          StdDev Corr 
#> MSS      1.3285 MSS  
#> TAU      0.2779 0.924
#> Residual 0.0152      
#> 
#> Fixed effects:  MSS + TAU ~ 1 
#>     Value Std.Error DF t-value p-value
#> MSS  8.47     0.616 24   13.76       0
#> TAU  1.15     0.129 24    8.93       0
#>  Correlation: 
#>     MSS  
#> TAU 0.923
#> 
#> Standardized Within-Group Residuals:
#>    Min     Q1    Med     Q3    Max 
#> -1.336 -0.407 -0.133  0.328  2.708 
#> 
#> Number of Observations: 30
#> Number of Groups: 5

plot(mixed_model_corrected) +
  theme_bw()

kable(mixed_model_corrected$parameters$random)

athlete	MSS	TAU	MAC	PMAX	time_correction
James	10.55	1.495	7.05	18.6	0.3
Jim	8.05	0.922	8.73	17.6	0.3
John	8.13	1.230	6.61	13.4	0.3
Kimberley	9.12	1.372	6.64	15.1	0.3
Samantha	6.53	0.756	8.64	14.1	0.3

And time_correction can also be used in predict_XXX() and find_XXX() family of functions:

velocity_over_distance_corrected <- merge(
    mixed_model_corrected$parameters$random,
    data.frame(distance = seq(0, 40, length.out = 1000))
)

velocity_over_distance_corrected$pred_velocity <- with(velocity_over_distance,
  shorts::predict_velocity_at_distance(
    distance = distance,
    MSS = MSS,
    TAU = TAU,
    time_correction = 0.3)
)

ggplot(velocity_over_distance_corrected, aes(x = distance, y = pred_velocity, color = athlete)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_line() +
  xlab("Distance (m)") +
  ylab("Predicted velocity (m/s)")

Instead of providing for time_correction, this parameter can be estimated using shorts::model_using_splits_with_time_correction() and shorts::mixed_model_using_splits_with_time_correction():

kimberley_profile_with_time_correction <- shorts::model_using_splits_with_time_correction(
  distance = kimberley_data$distance,
  time = kimberley_data$time)  

kimberley_profile_with_time_correction
#> Estimated model parameters
#> --------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.975               1.235               7.268              16.307 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.235               0.000 
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>  0.001129  1.000000 -0.001209  0.001181  0.001209  0.000798  0.000659  0.028235

# Mixed-effect model using `time_correction` as fixed effect only
# To use `time_correction` as random effects, use random = MSS + TAU + time_correction ~ 1
mixed_model_with_time_correction <- shorts::mixed_model_using_splits_with_time_correction(
  data = split_times,
  distance = "distance",
  time = "time",
  athlete = "athlete"
)

# Parameters
mixed_model_with_time_correction
#> Estimated fixed model parameters
#> --------------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.304               0.969               8.572              17.796 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.199               0.000 
#> 
#> Estimated random model parameters
#> ----------------------------------
#>     athlete   MSS   TAU   MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1     James 10.19 1.243  8.20 20.9           0.199                   0
#> 2       Jim  7.95 0.764 10.40 20.7           0.199                   0
#> 3      John  8.00 1.049  7.62 15.2           0.199                   0
#> 4 Kimberley  8.90 1.162  7.66 17.0           0.199                   0
#> 5  Samantha  6.49 0.626 10.37 16.8           0.199                   0
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>   0.00598   0.99999  -0.01651   0.00937   0.01651   0.00488   0.00348   0.18614


plot(mixed_model_with_time_correction) +
  theme_bw()

kable(mixed_model_with_time_correction$parameters$random)

athlete	MSS	TAU	MAC	PMAX	time_correction
James	10.19	1.243	8.20	20.9	0.199
Jim	7.95	0.764	10.40	20.7	0.199
John	8.00	1.049	7.62	15.2	0.199
Kimberley	8.90	1.162	7.66	17.0	0.199
Samantha	6.49	0.626	10.37	16.8	0.199

For more details, please refer to sprint-corrections vignette.

Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation (LOOCV)

...model_using_splits..() family of functions come with LOOCV feature that is performed by setting the function parameter LOOCV = TRUE. This feature is very useful for checking model parameters robustness and model predictions on unseen data. LOOCV involve iterative model building and testing by removing observation one by one and making predictions for them. Let’s use Kimberley again, but this time perform LOOCV:

kimberley_profile_LOOCV <- shorts::model_using_splits(
  distance = kimberley_data$distance,
  time = kimberley_data$time,
  LOOCV = TRUE)  

kimberley_profile_LOOCV
#> Estimated model parameters
#> --------------------------
#>                 MSS                 TAU                 MAC                PMAX 
#>               8.591               0.811              10.589              22.743 
#>     time_correction distance_correction 
#>               0.000               0.000 
#> 
#> Model fit estimators
#> --------------------
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>    0.0340    0.9997   -0.0270    0.0529    0.0529    0.0278    0.0233    1.1926 
#> 
#> 
#> Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation
#> ------------------------------
#> Parameters:
#>    MSS   TAU  MAC PMAX time_correction distance_correction
#> 1 8.69 0.856 10.2 22.1               0                   0
#> 2 8.60 0.815 10.5 22.7               0                   0
#> 3 8.56 0.795 10.8 23.0               0                   0
#> 4 8.57 0.797 10.8 23.0               0                   0
#> 5 8.61 0.813 10.6 22.8               0                   0
#> 6 8.39 0.760 11.1 23.2               0                   0
#> 
#> Model fit:
#>       RSE R_squared    minErr    maxErr maxAbsErr      RMSE       MAE      MAPE 
#>        NA    0.9990   -0.0344    0.0801    0.0801    0.0474    0.0392    1.7227

Box-plot is suitable method for plotting estimated parameters:

LOOCV_parameters <- gather(kimberley_profile_LOOCV$LOOCV$parameters) %>%
  mutate(key = factor(
    key,
    levels = c("MSS", "TAU", "MAC", "PMAX", "time_correction", "distance_correction")
  ))

ggplot(LOOCV_parameters, aes(y = value)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_boxplot() +
  facet_wrap(~key, scales = "free") +
  ylab(NULL) +
  theme(axis.ticks.x = element_blank(), axis.text.x = element_blank())

Let’s plot model LOOCV predictions and training (when using all data set) predictions against observed performance:

kimberley_data <- kimberley_data %>%
  mutate(
    pred_time = predict(kimberley_profile_LOOCV),
    LOOCV_time = kimberley_profile_LOOCV$LOOCV$data$pred_time
  )

ggplot(kimberley_data, aes(x = distance)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_point(aes(y = time)) +
  geom_line(aes(y = pred_time), color = "black") +
  geom_line(aes(y = LOOCV_time), color = "red") +
  xlab("Distance (m)") +
  ylab("Time (s)")

Let’s plot predicted velocity using LOOCV estimate parameters to check robustness of the model predictions:

plot_data <- kimberley_profile_LOOCV$LOOCV$parameters %>%
  mutate(LOOCV = row_number())

plot_data <- expand_grid(
  data.frame(time = seq(0, 6, length.out = 100)),
  plot_data
) %>%
  mutate(
    LOOCV_velocity = predict_velocity_at_time(
      time = time,
      MSS = MSS,
      TAU = TAU),
    velocity = predict_velocity_at_time(
      time = time,
      MSS = kimberley_profile_LOOCV$parameters$MSS,
      TAU = kimberley_profile_LOOCV$parameters$TAU)
  )

ggplot(plot_data, aes(x = time, y = LOOCV_velocity, group = LOOCV)) +
  theme_bw() +
  geom_line(alpha = 0.8) +
  geom_line(aes(y = velocity), color = "red", size = 0.5) +
  xlab("Time (sec)") +
  ylab("Velocity (m/s)")

Publications

Jovanović, M., Vescovi, J.D. (2020). shorts: An R Package for Modeling Short Sprints. Preprint available at SportRxiv. https://doi.org/10.31236/osf.io/4jw62
Vescovi, JD and Jovanović, M. Sprint Mechanical Characteristics of Female Soccer Players: A Retrospective Pilot Study to Examine a Novel Approach for Correction of Timing Gate Starts. Front Sports Act Living 3: 629694, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.629694

Citation

To cite shorts, please use the following command to get the BibTex entry:

citation("shorts")

References

Please refer to these publications for more information on short sprints modeling using mono-exponential equation, as well as on performing mixed non-linear models with nlme package:

Chelly SM, Denis C. 2001. Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint running performance: Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise:326–333. DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200102000-00024.

Clark KP, Rieger RH, Bruno RF, Stearne DJ. 2017. The NFL Combine 40-Yard Dash: How Important is Maximum Velocity? Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research:1. DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002081.

Furusawa K, Hill AV, and Parkinson JL. The dynamics of" sprint" running. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character 102 (713): 29-42, 1927

Greene PR. 1986. Predicting sprint dynamics from maximum-velocity measurements. Mathematical Biosciences 80:1–18. DOI: 10.1016/0025-5564(86)90063-5.

Haugen TA, Tønnessen E, Seiler SK. 2012. The Difference Is in the Start: Impact of Timing and Start Procedure on Sprint Running Performance: Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26:473–479. DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318226030b.

Pinheiro J, Bates D, DebRoy S, Sarkar D, R Core Team. 2019. nlme: Linear and nonlinear mixed effects models.

Samozino P, Rabita G, Dorel S, Slawinski J, Peyrot N, Saez de Villarreal E, Morin J-B. 2016. A simple method for measuring power, force, velocity properties, and mechanical effectiveness in sprint running: Simple method to compute sprint mechanics. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 26:648–658. DOI: 10.1111/sms.12490.

Samozino P. 2018. A Simple Method for Measuring Force, Velocity and Power Capabilities and Mechanical Effectiveness During Sprint Running. In: Morin J-B, Samozino P eds. Biomechanics of Training and Testing. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 237–267. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-05633-3_11.

shorts

Installation

Examples

Profiling using split times

Mixed-effect models

Profiling using radar gun data

Force-Velocity Profiling

Using corrections

Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation (LOOCV)

Publications

Citation

References

Links

License

Citation

Developers

Dev status